Starch and Gluten 101: The composition and behavior of wheat flour

Often times as a cook, wheat flour has remained on of those elusive ingredients, the understanding of which is left to depraved genius bakers and pastry chefs.  They live in an elevated state, at least in my mind.

What is it though that makes flour so temperamental?

After a horrific failed attempt at making hand pulled noodles, this question was eating me alive, so I had to do a little research.  What are the major chemical components of flour, and what are their roles in its behavior?

Flour is one of nature’s incredible storage machines.  In it’s natural state, it is composed of starches and proteins, along with vitamins and other nutrients.

So what is starch?  Starch is an incredible complex carbohydrate (a polysaccharide) that is found in all plants to store as much glucose (one of three natural simple sugars, or monosaccharide) as possible in a compact granule.  Glucose by itself loves water (it is hydrophilic).  So, to maximize storage potential when glucose is bonded together into starch granules it is not water soluble in cold water (it becomes hydrophobic).

When starch is added to warm water, however, the magic starts to happen.  Starch is composed of two smaller polysaccharides, about 20-30% amylose and 70-80% amylopectin.  Amylose is hydrophobic and bonds with itself and other molecules in flour, acting as a gelling agent.  Its partner, amylopectin is hydrophillic and acts as a thickening or stabilizing agent. Amylopectin provides more pliability (think Play-Doh), while amylose provides more structure or spring-back (think Jello).  As these two components of starch break down and restructure themselves into a slurry of gel and paste the magical process is called retrogradation.

As this retrograded starch starts to cool off, a process called syneresis occurs in which water is expelled causing separation of the thickened gel/paste and water.  You see an example syneresis in everyday life as a layer of water forms on top of yogurt or sour cream.  This process is also partially to blame for bread becoming stale.

The other important component of wheat flour is protein.  The average protein content of grain is 10-18% and of this protein, 80% is gluten.  Gluten, much like starch, is a storage molecule but in this case it provides storage of amino acids.  There are two primary structures that compose gluten: gliadin and glutelin.  These structures are called prolamines and are essentially large amounts of amino acids that are bonded together into one molecule.

The most important role of gluten in bread is the elasticity it allows during the baking process, allowing bread to rise.  Now, here is where some of my confusion originated when attempting to make hand pulled noodles.  When I say gluten elasticity, do not think rubber band elasticity.  Think blowing soap bubbles elasticity.  Try to pull soap water into a noodle shape.  I promise that you will become very frustrated and punch your ball of dough in exasperation, just to see it bounce back to it’s original shape and not even give you the gratification of leaving the indent of your fist.

Here is chart to give you an idea of what happens to your bread with different levels of gluten and starch:

Composition	Flour type	Protein content	Examples
High Gluten (High elasticity) High Starch (Crumbly)	Gluten Flour	45%	Bagels, challah, pizza dough, pullman loaf Pie crust, cake, filo dough, short bread
	High-gluten	14-15%
	Bread Flour	12.5-14%
	AP Flour	10-12%
	Pastry Flour	~9-10%
	Cake Flour	7-9

The Science Behind Kimchi

My attempts at making homemade kimchi have led to an interesting question: how long can it be aged, and why?

The origin of fermented food was dependent upon a few key factors: nutritional value and shelf life.  Kimchi itself is from Korea and comes in hundreds of styles.  It is categorized in several ways, of which there are a few important designations: base produce (ie. cabbage, radish, cucumber), season (ie. winter kimchi, summer kimchi) and region (ie. northern Korea, southern Korea).

To maximize the value and flavor of kimchi it is necessary to understand some of the contributing factors that determine how kimchi is preserved and at what point it becomes inedible.  Within a batch of kimchi, a unique environment is created based on the acidity, pH level, sodium level and temperature.  This environment creates a very restrictive ecosystem, which is preferred by Lactic Acid Bacteria (LAB). In the case of kimchi the primary bacteria family is Lactobacilius, a bacteria already present in the human digestive system.  A single batch of kimchi may have hundreds of different strains of LAB, each contributing certain characteristics to their environment, but most importantly producing lactic acid, which is the main preservation agent.

(http://www.humanecologyreview.org/pastissues/her151/scottandsullivan.pdf)

So what happens when kimchi is made?  Each of the unique ingredients which make up kimchi have important roles: salt regulates the speed of fermentation, sugar and starch provide the food for the bacteria to consume, the base produce provides the body of the kimchi, the ginger and garlic provide nutrition and antibacterial qualities that regulate the freshness and fermentation of the mix.  Each of these also carries their own set of ambient yeasts and bacteria.

The warmer the storage temperature, the faster the metabolism of the bacteria and the faster the fermentation takes place.  The best results are achieved when the bacteria begins to ferment the kimchi quickly, but are then transferred to conditions that allow for the slowest ripening.  This allows less time for other, less desirable bacteria, to affect the quality and flavor of the kimchi.  There have been studies on using sherry yeast or a starter from previous batch of cold fermented kimchi (41*F) to jump start fermentation, much like a sourdough bread starter.

The initial fermentation of kimchi takes place between hetero LAB strains.  These strains of bacteria primarily produce organic acids and carbon dioxide as byproducts.  After the first fermentation, the flavor profile is at its peak, with a target pH level of 4.2-4.5 and an acidity level of 0.6-0.8% (http://cms.daegu.ac.kr/sgpark/microbiology/김치발효젖산균.pdf).  To maximize shelf life, the goal is to quickly bring the kimchi through this first fermentation and maintain the pH and acidity levels by monitoring temperature and having the right balance of salt and antiseptic/ antibacterial ingredients (ginger, garlic and optional green tea).

As kimchi ages, the pH slowly drops and the acidity level rises, this change happens quickly when the kimchi reaches its second fermentation between homo LAB strains.  These strains of bacteria produce excessive amounts of lactic acid.  This fermentation brings the kimchi out of the desired pH and acidity levels and closer to inedible acidity levels, introducing less desirable flavor profiles.  So, ideally kimchi goes quickly through its first fermentation and is then introduced to an environment that delays the secondary fermentation as long as possible.

If prepared and stored properly, a batch of kimchi may remain edible for as many as 3 years, although at this point it is well beyond the target flavor profile, pH and acidity levels.  All that’s left to do is make a hot and sour kimchi soup.  Let's take a quick look at the perfect environment for a batch of extended shelf-life kimchi.

First we need a very even and accurate level of sodium to initially dehydrate the base produce.  Applying granulated salt by hand tends to be less accurate, so a different technique serves very well.  A 15% saltwater brine (a ratio of 1:5 salt to water) provides even distribution and an accurate level of salt.  A batch of kimchi begins with a 6-hour brine.

After the ingredients have been put together and the kimchi is put in jars, preferably with a starter from a previous batch of cold fermented kimchi (41*F), the kimchi needs to spend less than 18hours in a cool (60*F), dark place and then be moved to the refrigerator.  This will allow the slow fermenting hetero LAB strains to get a head start without over acidifying the kimchi and then move into a cold environment that will allow the fermentation process to slow down and delay the second fermentation.

This is what you need to make Kimchi:

Equipment:

3 Large mixing bowls

Rubber Gloves

2 two-quart jars

Ingredients:

Raw Ingredients:

2 Napa Cabbages

1 Korean Radish

¼ c. Green Onion

Brine:

                        5 c. Salt

30 c. Water

Kimchi Paste:

1 c. Sweet Rice Flour (Tobiko)

3 c. Water

½ c. Sugar

1 tbs. Fish Sauce (I'll make this myself sometime soon)

1-3 c. Red Pepper Powder (grind yourself if you're up to it)

1 Large Onion

1 c. Garlic

3 tbsp. Ginger

Optional Additions:

1 c. Raw Oysters

1 c. Dried Shrimp

1 tbsp. Matcha green tea powder

First, create a 15% (1:5) salt-water brine by combining your salt and water and stir until completely dissolved.  Halve your napa cabbage through the heart and chop your radish into 1" cubes and rinse, retaining 1/5 of uncubed radish for the paste.  Separate the cabbage and radish into separate bowls.  Pour enough brine over the cabbage and radish to cover and let them sit for 6 hours, stirring once.  When this is complete, rinse the radish and cabbage thoroughly between each leaf at least 3 times and strain to dry.

Meanwhile, begin your kimchi paste: add your sweet rice flour and water to a small saucepan until fully dissolved.  Add the sugar and stir until the mixture just begins to bubble.  Transfer mixture to a large mixing bowl.

In a food processor, combine garlic, ginger and onion and process into a paste.  Add to flour mixture with fish sauce, red pepper powder, green tea powder, chopped green onions and the rest of the julienned radish.

At this point you may add your optional seafood.

Mix the kimchi paste ingredients together and you are ready to start putting your kimchi together.  It is advisable to use some gloves for this step.  With your hands, apply the kimchi paste in between each of the leaves of the cabbage and on the outside.  Squeeze out any excess paste and you are ready to bottle your cabbage kimchi.  Add the radish to the remainder of the paste, stir and this is ready to bottle as well.

Empanadas Chilenas

To celebrate Chile's Independence Day I made a classic holiday food: empanadas.

There are a few variations on Chilean empanadas, most importantly wether they are baked (al horno) or fried (fritas).  The other important variations are the fillings.  The most common are Empanadas de Pino, made with ground beef, hard boiled eggs, black olives and golden raisins.  You can also fill the empanadas with cheese or "a la Napolitana" with cheese, prosciutto and basil.

The following is the recipe for Empanadas de Pino al Horno: (makes approx. 12 large empanadas)

First, prepare the accoutrements:

Hard boil 3 eggs.  I recommend the following method.  Place the eggs in cold water and bring to a boil.  When the water reaches a hard boil, remove from the heat and let rest in the hot water for 8 minutes.  Transfer to an ice bath for a few minutes, then peel.  These will be cut into quarters.

Drain and rinse extra large black olives.

Soak the golden raisins.  I have been soaking the raisins in Chilean Sauvignon Blanc, it adds a nice touch of acid to the raisins (and gives you a reason to finish the bottle as you prepare the rest of the empanadas).


Then, it is essential to prepare a good dough (masa).

4 c. AP flour
1 tsp. baking powder
1/2 c. melted lard
1/2 c. clarified butter
3/4 c. warm water
1 tbsp. salt

Sift the flour, baking powder and salt together into a mound on a table top and form a volcano to contain the liquid ingredients.  Add the lard and butter and start to whisk the ingredients together from the inside to avoid the liquid escaping.  Knead the dough JUST until it is fully incorporated.  Over kneading will make the dough too tough.  When finished, place in a bowl, cover with a damp cloth and allow to sit for 45 minutes.

While the dough is resting, prepare the pino.

1 1/2 lbs. 85/15 ground beef
1 large onion
4 tbsp vegetable oil
3 tbsp ground cumin
2 tbsp salt
1 tsp granulated white sugar
1 tbsp freshly ground black pepper

Chop the onions and sauté with 1 1/2 tbsp oil on medium heat until they are nicely browned.  Remove onions from the pan to be added to the pino.  Heat a clean pan over high heat and add oil when HOT.  The pan should almost be at smoke point when you add the oil.  Add the ground beef, cumin, salt and pepper.  Lower heat to medium-high.  Stir until well browned and add the the browned onions.  Lower heat to a simmer to allow flavors to marry.  Do not be afraid to well season the Pino.

Now it's time to roll the empanadas.

Remove the dough from the bowl and cut into two pieces.  Roll each half out into a log and cut into 6 sections.  Roll each piece into a ball and then flatten into a circle.  Into each flattened circle add a 1/4 of a hard boiled egg, an olive, about 10 raisins and 2 well rounded tablespoons of pino to the top half of the dough.  Brush the edges of the dough with an egg wash, fold and pinch the bottom layer over the top layer every 1/2 inch all the way around the edge.

Lay the finished empanadas on a baking sheet dusted with flour and brush the tops with an egg wash, and bake at 375ºF until golden brown.